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August 22, 2022
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Article

A scaled-up planetary system around a supernova progenitor

Publicated to: ASTRONOMY & ASTROPHYSICS. 664 - 2022-08-04 664(), DOI: 10.1051/0004-6361/202243675

Authors:

Squicciarini, V; Gratton, R; Janson, M; Mamajek, EE; Chauvin, G; Delorme, P; Langlois, M; Vigan, A; Ringqvist, SC; Meeus, G; Reffert, S; Kenworthy, M; Meyer, MR; Bonnefoy, M; Bonavita, M; Mesa, D; Samland, M; Desidera, S; D'Orazi, V; Engler, N; Alecian, E; Miglio, A; Henning, T; Quanz, SP; Mayer, L; Flasseur, O; Marleau, GD
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Affiliations

Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, LAM Lab Astrophys Marseille, CNES,UMR 7326, F-13388 Marseille, France - Author
CALTECH, Jet Prop Lab, 4800 Oak Grove Dr, Pasadena, CA 91109 USA - Author
INAF Osservatorio Astrofis & Sci Spazio Bologna, Via Gobetti 93 3, I-40129 Bologna, Italy - Author
INAF Osservatorio Astron Padova, Vicolo dellOsservatorio 5, I-35122 Padua, Italy - Author
Leiden Univ, Leiden Observ, Postbus 9513, Leiden, Netherlands - Author
Max Planck Inst Astron, Konigstuhl 17, D-69117 Heidelberg, Germany - Author
Open Univ, Sch Phys Sci, Fac Sci Technol Engn & Math, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, Bucks, England - Author
Sorbonne Univ, Univ PSL, Univ Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cite,LESIA,Observ Paris,CNRS, 5 Pl Jules Janssen, F-92195 Meudon, France - Author
Stockholms Univ, Inst astron, AlbaNova univ Ctr, S-10691 Stockholm, Sweden - Author
Swiss Fed Inst Technol, Inst Particle Phys & Astrophys, Wolfgang Pauli Str 27, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland - Author
UAM, Fac Ciencias, Ctr Invest Avanzada Fis Fundamental CIAFF, Madrid 28049, Spain - Author
Univ Autonoma Madrid, Dept Fis Teor, Madrid 28049, Spain - Author
Univ Bern, Phys Inst, Gesellschaftsstr 6, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland - Author
Univ Birmingham, Sch Phys & Astron, Birmingham B15 2TT, W Midlands, England - Author
Univ Bologna, Dipartimento Fis & Astron Augusto Righi, Via Gobetti 93 2, I-40129 Bologna, Italy - Author
Univ Chile, Dept Astron, Casilla 36-D, Santiago, Chile - Author
Univ Chile, Unidad Mixta Int Franco Chilena Astron, CNRS, INSU UMI 3386, Casilla 36-D, Santiago, Chile - Author
Univ Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, IPAG, F-38000 Grenoble, France - Author
Univ Lyon, CNRS, CRAL, UMR 5574, 9 Ave Charles Andre, F-69561 St Genis Laval, France - Author
Univ Michigan, Dept Astron, 1085 S Univ Ave, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA - Author
Univ Padua, Dept Phys & Astron Galileo Galilei, Vicolo dellOsservatorio 3, I-35122 Padua, Italy - Author
Univ Tubingen, Inst Astron & Astrophys, Morgenstelle 10, D-72076 Tubingen, Germany - Author
Univ Zurich, Inst Comp Sci, Ctr Theoret Phys & Cosmol, Winterthurerstr 190, CH-8056 Zurich, Switzerland - Author
Zentrum Astron Univ Heidelberg, Landessternwarte, Konigstuhl 12, D-69117 Heidelberg, Germany - Author
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Abstract

Context. Virtually all known exoplanets reside around stars with M < 2.3 M-circle dot either due to the rapid evaporation of the protostellar disks or to selection effects impeding detections around more massive stellar hosts.Aims. To clarify if this dearth of planets is real or a selection effect, we launched the planet-hunting B-star Exoplanet Abundance STudy (BEAST) survey targeting B stars (M > 2.4 M-circle dot) in the young (5-20 Myr) Scorpius-Centaurus association by means of the high-contrast spectro-imager SPHERE at the Very Large Telescope.Methods. In this paper we present the analysis of high-contrast images of the massive (M similar to 9 M-circle dot) star mu(2) Sco obtained within BEAST. We carefully examined the properties of this star, combining data from Gaia and from the literature, and used state-of-the-art algorithms for the reduction and analysis of our observations.Results. Based on kinematic information, we found that mu(2) Sco is a member of a small group which we label Eastern Lower Scorpius within the Scorpius-Centaurus association. We were thus able to constrain its distance, refining in turn the precision on stellar parameters. Around this star we identify a robustly detected substellar companion (14.4 +/- 0.8 M-J)at a projected separation of 290 +/- 10 au, and a probable second similar object (18.5 +/- 1.5 M-J) at 21 +/- 1 au. The planet-to-star mass ratios of these objects are similar to that of Jupiter to the Sun, and the flux they receive from the star is similar to those of Jupiter and Mercury, respectively.Conclusions. The robust and the probable companions of mu(2) Sco are naturally added to the giant 10.9 M-J planet recently discovered by BEAST around the binary b Cen system. While these objects are slightly more massive than the deuterium burning limit, their properties are similar to those of giant planets around less massive stars and they are better reproduced by assuming that they formed under a planet-like, rather than a star-like scenario. Irrespective of the (needed) confirmation of the inner companion, mu(2) Sco is the first star that would end its life as a supernova that hosts such a system. The tentative high frequency of BEAST discoveries is unexpected, and it shows that systems with giant planets or small-mass brown dwarfs can form around B stars. When putting this finding in the context of core accretion and gravitational instability formation scenarios, we conclude that the current modeling of both mechanisms is not able to produce this kind of companion. The completion of BEAST will pave the way for the first time to an extension of these models to intermediate and massive stars.
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Keywords

Bolometric correctionBrown dwarfCircumstellar disksEffective temperatureExo-planetsExtrasolar planetsExtreme-ultravioletGiant planetsGiant starsJupitersPlanetary systemPlanetary systemsPrecise radial-velocitiesPropertyRotational velocitiesStar-formation historyStar: individual: b centauriStar: individual: mu2 scorpiiStars: early-typeStars: individual: b centauriStars: individual: mu2 scorpiiStars: individual: proxima centauriStars:early typeSupernovaeTechniques: high angular resolutionsX-ray-radiation

Quality index

Bibliometric impact. Analysis of the contribution and dissemination channel

The work has been published in the journal Astronomy & Astrophysics due to its progression and the good impact it has achieved in recent years, according to the agency WoS (JCR), it has become a reference in its field. In the year of publication of the work, 2022, it was in position 9/69, thus managing to position itself as a Q1 (Primer Cuartil), in the category Astronomy & Astrophysics.

From a relative perspective, and based on the normalized impact indicator calculated from World Citations provided by WoS (ESI, Clarivate), it yields a value for the citation normalization relative to the expected citation rate of: 2.08. This indicates that, compared to works in the same discipline and in the same year of publication, it ranks as a work cited above average. (source consulted: ESI Nov 13, 2025)

This information is reinforced by other indicators of the same type, which, although dynamic over time and dependent on the set of average global citations at the time of their calculation, consistently position the work at some point among the top 50% most cited in its field:

  • Weighted Average of Normalized Impact by the Scopus agency: 2.12 (source consulted: FECYT Mar 2025)

Specifically, and according to different indexing agencies, this work has accumulated citations as of 2026-04-03, the following number of citations:

  • WoS: 22
  • Scopus: 22
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Impact and social visibility

From the perspective of influence or social adoption, and based on metrics associated with mentions and interactions provided by agencies specializing in calculating the so-called "Alternative or Social Metrics," we can highlight as of 2026-04-03:

  • The use, from an academic perspective evidenced by the Altmetric agency indicator referring to aggregations made by the personal bibliographic manager Mendeley, gives us a total of: 8.
  • The use of this contribution in bookmarks, code forks, additions to favorite lists for recurrent reading, as well as general views, indicates that someone is using the publication as a basis for their current work. This may be a notable indicator of future more formal and academic citations. This claim is supported by the result of the "Capture" indicator, which yields a total of: 8 (PlumX).

With a more dissemination-oriented intent and targeting more general audiences, we can observe other more global scores such as:

  • The Total Score from Altmetric: 78.
  • The number of mentions on the social network X (formerly Twitter): 24 (Altmetric).
  • The number of mentions on Wikipedia: 10 (Altmetric).
  • The number of mentions in news outlets: 4 (Altmetric).

It is essential to present evidence supporting full alignment with institutional principles and guidelines on Open Science and the Conservation and Dissemination of Intellectual Heritage. A clear example of this is:

  • The work has been submitted to a journal whose editorial policy allows open Open Access publication.
  • Additionally, the work has been submitted to a journal classified as Diamond in relation to this type of editorial policy.
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Leadership analysis of institutional authors

This work has been carried out with international collaboration, specifically with researchers from: Chile; France; Germany; Italy; Netherlands; Sweden; Switzerland; United Kingdom; United States of America.

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Awards linked to the item

We are extremely grateful for the extremely helpful comments during the refereeing process, which significantly helped raise the quality of this paper. The observations have been acquired at the ESO VLT telescope (program 1101.C-0258). This work has made use of the SPHERE Data Center, jointly operated by OSUG/IPAG (Grenoble), PYTHEAS/LAM/CeSAM (Marseille), OCA/Lagrange (Nice), Observatoire de Lyon and Observatoire de Paris/LESIA (Paris). This work has made use of data from the European Space Agency (ESA) mission Gaia (https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia), processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC, https://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/dpac/consortium). Funding for the DPAC has been provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia Multilateral Agreement. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS, Strasbourg, France. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. Part of this research was carried out in part at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (80NM0018D0004). This work was supported by the Programme National de Planetologie (PNP) and ASHRA of CNRS/INSU, cofunded by CNES. V.S., R.G., D.M., S.D. and V.D. acknowledge the support of PRIN-INAF 2019 Planetary Systems At Early Ages (PLATEA). Part of this work has been carried out within the framework of the National Centre of Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation. N.E., S.P.Q. and L.M. acknowledge the financial support of the SNSF. G.D.M. acknowledges the support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) priority program SPP 1992 "Exploring the Diversity of Extrasolar Planets" (MA 9185/1-1). G.D.M. also acknowledges the support from the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant BSSGI0_155816 "PlanetsInTime". A.M. acknowledges support from the ERC Consolidator Grant funding scheme (project ASTEROCHRONOMETRY, https://www.asterochronometry.eu, G.A. n. 772293). For the purpose of open access, the authors have applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.
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